In 1861, the U.S. embarked on a deadly and devastating four-year battle that claimed the lives of more than 600,000 Americans, defined states’ rights and ended the practice of slavery. GW Today spoke with Professor of History Tyler Anbinder, an expert on 19th-century American politics, immigration and ethnicity, about the Civil War and its legacy.
Q: What would you say were the most significant moments during the Civil War?
A: The first was the attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861. When South Carolina decided to bombard the federal troops in this island fortress in the middle of Charleston harbor, rather than allow President Abraham Lincoln to resupply it, full-scale armed conflict between the North and the South became inevitable. The firing upon Sumter was also important because it galvanized support for war in both the Confederacy and the Union. The inhabitants of each region now felt they had no choice but to fight in order to maintain their honor.
The second crucial moment of the war comes in September 1862 when Gen. Robert E. Lee brings his Army of Northern Virginia into western Maryland—Union territory—resulting in the Battle of Antietam. Had Lee been victorious, Great Britain and France might have recognized the Confederacy and tipped the military balance in favor of the South. But Union Gen. George McClellan, emboldened by having found Lee’s battle plans lying on a roadside near Frederick, Md., fought more aggressively than usual and forced Lee to retreat back across the Potomac into Virginia.
The third vital moment of the war was the Fourth of July weekend of 1863. On Friday, July 3, Lee made one last attempt to take Gettysburg by ordering the doomed attack that became know as Pickett’s Charge. The very next day, the city of Vicksburg, Miss., which had been surrounded for several months by Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, surrendered to Union forces. The capture of the Confederate’s seemingly impregnable fortress on the Mississippi River gave the Union complete control of that vital waterway, thereby splitting the Confederacy in half. Grant’s victory at Vicksburg, combined with the decimation of Lee’s army due to the casualties suffered at Gettysburg, made the Union victory in the war virtually inevitable.
Q: Was Abraham Lincoln an effective leader during the war?
A: President Lincoln was a very effective wartime leader, though that is clearer in retrospect than it was at the time. During the war, President Lincoln faced constant criticism. Conservatives, both inside his party and in the Democratic ranks, characterized President Lincoln as a power-hungry radical who put military victory above constitutionally guaranteed civil rights and the fate of the slaves above the Union. Progressives, on the other hand, complained that President Lincoln was too conciliatory to the South and too hesitant to use black troops to aid the Union cause. In retrospect, it appears that he did a remarkably good job addressing the concerns of both groups and keeping each committed to the Union cause. For that reason, he is seen today as one of the nation’s greatest wartime presidents.
Q: Can you give us a sense of what life was like for soldiers?
A: Life for the soldiers was typically one of monotony broken every few months by a day or two of intense combat. Soldiers spent well over a month in camp for every day they spent facing the enemy across the battlefield. Soldiers on both sides complained about terrible food, leaky tents and homesickness. Camp life was especially hard for the farm boys who had not previously been exposed to the most prevalent communicable diseases of the day. More Civil War soldiers actually died from diseases contracted in camp than from bullets fired by the other side. Dysentery and malaria were the most common causes of death. Dysentery covered a lot of things in those days, though, so often they might have had a bacterial infection for which diarrhea was the most prominent symptom.
Q: What are the lessons learned from the Civil War?
A: One of the great things about the Civil War is that everyone who studies it, in each generation, takes away a different lesson from its history. To me, one of the most important lessons is how critical it is to fight for what you believe in. Had Northerners not been willing to risk their lives to stop the spread of slavery, who can say how the institution might have been eliminated. The United States, or the Confederacy, might have become a second South Africa.
Q: Are there any Civil War sites or museums nearby that you can recommend?
A: There are a number of great Civil War sites to visit. The best battlefields are Gettysburg in Pennsylvania and Antietam in western Maryland. If you can fit them in your car, bikes are an especially good way to get around these big sites. The best Civil War museum is the one at Gettysburg. For sites that are related to the war but not military, Ford’s Theatre now has an excellent museum. In Richmond, the Tredegar Iron Works are definitely worth a visit.
Q: For those who want to brush up on their Civil War history, are there any resources you can suggest?
A: A great overview of the war can be found in the Ken Burns PBS documentary “The Civil War,” which is easy to rent or buy. For those who like Hollywood productions based on true stories, my two favorites are “Gettysburg” (for military history buffs) and “Glory” (for the implications of emancipation both on and off the battlefield). For a more nuanced understanding of the war, books are the best place to turn. James McPherson’s “Battle Cry of Freedom” is the best one-volume history, both thorough and compelling. For those who want to learn more about Lincoln, I recommend Doris Kearns Goodwin’s “Team of Rivals,” which focuses on Lincoln’s handling of his cabinet, or Eric Foner’s “The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery,” which won this year’s Pulitzer Prize in history.